James Liang And The Volkswagen Emission Scandal Essay

James Liang and the Volkswagen Emission Scandal An Ethical Examination On September 9, 2016, a veteran engineer of Volkswagen AG by the name of James Robert Liang pleaded guilty to charges of conspiracy to defraud the government, committing wire fraud, and violating the U.S. Clean Air Act. While working in Germany in 2006, Liang was part of a team charged with producing a new fuel-efficient diesel engine that satisfied new U.S. regulations on vehicle emissions. He and his team eventually came to the conclusion that their engine could not satisfy these new regulations while maintaining consumer expectations of engine performance. Their solution to this dilemma was to implement illegal software (known as a â€Å"defeat device†) into newly produced vehicles sold in the U.S. The purpose of this software was to detect any emissions test being performed on a vehicle and alter the results to show cleaner emissions on the onboard computer. Nearly 500,000 vehicles with this defeat device were sold in the U.S.; by 2008, consumers beg an to experience issues in their vehicles (not knowing it was due to the emission test software), and Liang worked to refine the device even further. The entirety of the scandal eventually came into the public spotlight in 2015 (Guess, 2016, p.1). The subsequent paragraphs of this essay will first discuss Kantian duty ethics and rule utilitarianism, and focus on analyzing the moral implications of Liang’s actions in reference to these moral theories. KantianShow MoreRelatedThe Case Of Engineer James Liang And The Volkswagen Emission Scandal1291 Words   |  6 Pagesoften be asked regarding the case of engineer James Liang and his role in the Volkswagen emission scandal. During the period of early 2006 to 2014, James Liang and his team of engineers developed a â€Å"defeat† device that allowed diesel powered vehicles to pass the EPA emission test, when in fact the vehicles were emitting up to 30 times the allowable limit. To many, this may seem a black and white case o f ethics due to the fact that Liang’s team and Volkswagen blatantly cheated on a governmental testingRead MoreAn Investigation Into The Volkswagen Emissions Scandal After Research Essay1636 Words   |  7 Pagesis an ongoing investigation into the Volkswagen emissions scandal after research indicated a large discrepancy in emissions during testing and road operation conditions on some of the company’s diesel engine vehicles.[1] On September 9, 2016, James Liang, an experienced Volkswagen engineer and head of the company’s Diesel Competence unit in the U.S., pleaded guilty to taking part in a fraudulent scheme to allow certain Volkswagen vehicles that violated emissions regulations to pass testing proceduresRead MoreThe Vs. Emission Testing1200 Words   |  5 Pagestopic that the Volkswagen engineer James Liang pleads guilty for his role in cheat U.S. emission test. Back to last year James Liang and his co-conspirators designed and implemented software for new â€Å"EA 189† diesel engine, to cheat the missions tests. They knew it was impossible to create a diesel engine that could meet the U.S. emission standard, so they developed a software â€Å"defeat device,† which could recognize the difference between using the dynamometer to measure the emission quality in U.SRead MoreThe Principles Of Teamwork, Leadership Practices, And How These Influenced Business Outcomes Essay1962 Words   |  8 PagesOnce known for quality automobiles, Volkswagen is now perceived as a global corporation that deliberately deceived the U.S. government and defrauded customers. In this paper our team investigated the principles of teamwork, leadership practices, and how these influenced business outcomes. Research indicated that Volkswagen’s corporate culture has not always been the best. Dictatorial executive leadership and a culture where â€Å"success at all costs† outweighed ethics created an environment hostile toRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesUniversity Jann Freed, Central College Crissie Frye, Eastern Michigan University Diane Galbraith, Slippery Rock University Carolyn Gardner, Radford University Janice Gates, Western Illinois University Ellen Kaye Gehrke, Alliant International University James Gelatt, University of Maryland University College Joe Gerard, University of Wisconsin at Milwaukee Matthew Giblin, Southern Illinois University Donald Gibson, Fairfield University Cindi Gilliland, The University of Arizona Mary Giovannini, Truman State

The Free Journalist Essay - 1466 Words

American journalism is a constantly evolving field, and the freedoms granted by the Constitution allow the news media to flourish in a fairly unrestricted environment. As an integral part of the democratic United States, the media is responsible for keeping citizens informed and involved in their government and society. However, the media is not infallible, nor is it omniscient. Since its conception, it has faced detractors both foreign and domestic, and from every feasible political party. Despite its legions of reporters, analysts, and executive producers, the news media is unable to follow every story and capture each moment in detail. America is a dynamic aggregation in a state of perpetual expansion, and the media today is facing†¦show more content†¦Footage from the 9/11 attacks and the â€Å"Miracle on the Hudson† was first taken by bystanders effectively acting as citizen journalists (Emerson College ECommunication Thoughts). However, stories may also be negle cted due to the bias of networks and publishers (Outing). Various news stations, including Fox News and MSNBC, have a history of coming under fire for intense political bias. Although personal bias is usually negligible in the professional realm, political bias often stems from the influence of network heads and their monetary goals (Marcovitz 27). Journalists are often called â€Å"watchdogs† focused on keeping the government in check (Marcovitz 6). The effectiveness of citizen journalists is often in question; professional journalists are trained to keep their personal biases in check. However, a B.A. is not required to have moral compass. Although citizen journalists have no professional training, many still follow a certain code of ethics (Marcovitz 51). A metaphor is implemented to describe the position citizen journalism must hold: One way to conceptualize this new journalism, at its best, is to imagine it as a great jazz performance. Citizen journalists, bloggers, pro-am journalists and innovators we cannot even imagine would contribute along with paid professional journalists. The former would be the improvisers who would push the implicit logic and beauty of the music to its limits. The latter, theShow MoreRelatedMedia Law in Australia1303 Words   |  5 Pagesobjective of this work in writing is to examine media law in Australia and to answer the question of whether journalists should receive protection against revealing their sources in court. This work will discuss the merits of each side of the argument. Introduction Journalists are reported to be susceptible to being jailed for refusing to reveal their sources in court while simultaneously, journalist complain they are denied access to information, particularly background information on government decisionsRead MoreJournalists Privilege to Keep the Identity of His or Her Sources Secret660 Words   |  3 Pagesoccur when courts interact with media, specifically journalists. The court can often use information released by journalists as evidence; however, for the information to be usable a journalist must confess his or her sources. Yet, many journalists will not divulge their sources, creating difficulties for the court and in many cases, this kind of refusal of revealing sources can land a journalist in jail for contempt. Some may ask why a journalist would not want to reveal his or her sources if itRead MoreThe History Of Media Shield Laws1275 Words   |  6 Pagesinformants confidential and privileged, freeing journalists of the obligation to testify about them in court.† The encyclopedia compares this to a doctor-patient, lawyer-client or priest-parishioner privilege. Where these laws are in action, journalists are free to protect their sources. If subpoenaed by a state court, journalists are free to refuse to give up their confidential sources or unpublished material. This makes it easier for journalists to report on a broad variety of topics, but theseRead MoreObjectivity And Journalism1528 Words   |  7 PagesEvery journalist student will tell you that the most important aspect of being a journalist is to be impartial, objective, and to always report the facts - not your opinion. Everyone knows what objectivity means, yet do they all follow the rules? Is it even possible for journalist s to be objective? Most importantly, is objectivity a concept that even exists? I’m going to examine the evidence. We live in a word where most journalists and news corporations are labeled as being corrupt , biased andRead MoreEthics in Corporate Communicatons Essay1137 Words   |  5 Pagescommunications. I am going to discuss one from the Journalist profession: The Society of Professional Journalist (SPJ), Public relations and information: Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and the business profession: American Advertising Federation (AAF). All three of these have some of the same basic codes for example: respect, truth, accountability, honesty and avoiding conflicts of interest. Any member of The Society of Professional Journalist believe the public has a right to know of anyRead MoreLack of Freedom Of Speech in Sudan Essay994 Words   |  4 Pagesresponsible for issuing licenses and managing/maintaining media. It is required of the newspapers and journalists to verify their licenses with the Council on an annual basis. Thus, it won’t be incorrect to state that it is extremely difficult for an individual to become a reporter/journalist in Sudan as there are various stipulations in the law about who may or may not be employed as a reporter/journalist. It is also very difficult to publish a newspaper in Sudan as there are several other stipulationsRead MoreThe World with Journalism1148 Words   |  5 Pagesare reporters who report news. This type of journalism can be news reporting for business, news, human interest, sports and weather. There are journalists who proof read and edit others work and check it for accuracy. There are also editorial repor ters who report and comment on matters of public interest, laws, politics and government. Newspaper journalists may eventually transition to writing columns or commentary as opposed to reporting news. They can also shift to the editorial department. EditorsRead MoreThe Truth Behind War Coverage846 Words   |  4 PagesThe Truth Behind War Coverage in the 21st Century In the 90’s, CNN introduced the world to â€Å"live coverage† when they sent journalists to Baghdad to cover the first Gulf War. This was ground breaking journalism that opened several doors in the media industry and there wasn t a journalist that didn’t envy the team of men and women that were sent to Baghdad to report the war. Network stations today have followed suit when it comes to war coverage, to the way that CNN has paved for broadcast mediaRead MoreMedia Bias Of The United States1389 Words   |  6 Pagesvariation on their beliefs, but I must disagree when you say all journalists and writers are biased because, â€Å"they push their agenda in news and entertainment.† Media bias comes from a multitude of factors, who enters careers in writing and journalism, where journalists get information from, and how audiences receive news and media. When looking at how written work is biased, one must look at who is doing the writing. On the whole, journalist are white, upper class individuals (Williams). This is becauseRead MoreFreedom of Speech and Freedom of the Press in Nigeria972 Words   |  4 Pagespolice arrested six journalists from the Nation Newspaper in October after they published a purported letter from former President Oluseggun Obansanjo.† (Human Rights Watch). This clearly confirms that although Freedom of Speech laws are in place to protect the opinions and expressions of journalists, and protect the lives of those who publish such information, corruption in Nigeria by government officials is overruling those laws. Government officials are punishing any journalists for publishing any

Marketing Mix Model of Qantas Airline †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Marketing Mix Model of Qantas Airline. Answer: Introduction Themarketing mix is considered as the foundation model to understand the current market demand in the context of any organization (Festa et al., 2016). Product, price, promotion, and place are the four components of themarketing mix. In the recent years, marketing mix becomes a dominant framework that allows the business organization to take the decision regarding their business (Srijumpa, 2017). This assignment deals with the marketing mix analysis in the context of Qantas Airline based on its target market. It is important for the organization to give value to their customers and offer product according to their demand. Summary of the previous assignment based on the target market analysis and segmentation The target market of the Qantas Airline includes both business travelers and the leisure. However, traveling is a common need of the individuals who are associated with the business. Hence, the business travelers and the leisure travelers are the good target for Qantas Airline to enhance their profit in the business. The target customers of Qantas Airline aged 18 to 60 years. However, people of this age are able to show their choice regarding the traveling. People who are associated with the fashion trends will be the good target customers of Qantas Airline as such individuals like to gain new experience through the traveling. By achieving the leverage relation regarding its target customers Qantas Airline has obtained its position. Apart from this adoption segmentation is applied by Qantas Airline as it allows such organization to meet the demand of the customers. Marketing Mix According to the above PLC or product life cycle, it has been identified that the service or product of Qantas Airline is in the growth phase of the PLC. However, product in the growth phase means this service or product is going toward the maturity that ensures the profitability of a business (Adams, 2016). Branding is an important part of the product in the marketing mix (Dadzie et al., 2016). In the context of Qantas Airline, their branding logo is vital for their business. However, such organization uses different logos for their different brands. Kangaroo Icon is one of latest brands of Qantas Airline that gets significant profit in their business. Packaging The packaging is another part of the product strategy in the marketing mix. In the context of Qantas Airline, they use unique packaging method for their products within the flight and they follow unique design in their packaging. However, Qantas focuses on the environmental sustainability thus their packages can be recycled, which is a vital aspect of their packaging method. On the other hand, their attractive packaging method is effective to attract the customers. Labeling Labeling and the product quality of Qantas airline are very well this includes creativity to attract their customers. However, the labeling and the quality of the product should be unique in nature as this makes a business unique from other (Srijumpa, 2017). They provide safe service as it is vital for the customers to get a safe service within a flight. Therefore, the food quality of the Qantas Airline is also good that is provided to the customers. The labeling method of Qantas product follows unique design to gain the customer attention towards their product. Product mix Type of product Product Feature Enhancement of the economy service Offering new menu in economy classes of Qantas Airline including various types of food and beverages. Virtual reality glass Qantas Airline provides virtual reality glass to their customers to see the world in a unique way Offering discount to the regular customers Discount in booking and reward are provided Table 1: Product mix (Source: Ahmed Rahman, 2015) Augmented Service Qantas Airline provides augmented service to the frequent fliers. I-phone app and the Smartphone app are the suitable apps of the augmented service off Qantas airline. These apps are beneficial for the frequent fliers to take the current booking in the Qantas airline. Such augmented services will be beneficial for such organization to increase their customer loyalty and increase in the sales revenue generation Pricing Strategy Pricing strategy is one of the vital elements of the marketing mix as the success of a business depends on the selection of the pricing strategy of an organization (Sari, 2017). Qantas Airline follows cost plus margin strategy to set the price of their product and service. In order to fulfill the high demand of the market competitive pricing method is also used by Qantas. They offer refunding, which enhances their customer loyalty for such organization. They offer the discount as well as the low price for the existing and new customers. This will fulfill the demand of the business and leisure travelers. Promotional Mix Integrated marketing communication strategy is beneficial for the business organization to involve their stakeholders in the business promotion (Ahmed Rahman, 2015). Integrated marketing communications Features Inside-out approach This allows Qantas to provide the single unified message to their stakeholders for their business promotion by assimilating the elements of the communication. Cross functional strategic approach This creates a customer centric environment during the promotion of the product. Outside-in approach This allows Qantas to understand the demand of their target market during their promotion of the product. Table 2: IMC (Source: Moorthy Suresh, 2014) People The target market is the business and leisure travelers in context of Qantas Airline. They focus on the age group between 18 to 60 years as this age is able to make the decision about their travel. However, it is important for the business organization to select their target people to give success to their business (Moorthy Suresh, 2014). Process Market penetration strategy, discount strategy and providing customer value are the main processes of Qantas Airline to carry out their marketing mix strategy (Jin, Kim Kim, 2015). Such method enables this organization to build a good relationship with their stakeholders, which give a valuable shape to their business. Physical evidence Physical evidence plays an important role in a marketing mix as it enables an organization to attract their customer towards their service (Moorthy Suresh, 2014). However, in the context of Qantas Airline, they use the logo in their products that increase their brand awareness among the customer domain. Conclusion This above study focuses on the application of the marketing mix model in the context of Qantas Airline. Product, price, promotion, and place are the four major elements of the marketing mix. It has been found that Qantas uses discounts in their service and they also use competitive strategy to penetrate in a market. Furthermore, use of the unique logo in their product increase their brand awareness. Recommendations Product life cycle or PLC is a good idea, as it will enable an organization to understand the phases of product life cycle from development to its decline. However, the Qantas Airline should follow the PLC practice to maximize their profit. PLC management will be helpful for Qantas Airline to reduce the cost of market entry. PLC management can be considered as the profitable and efficient distribution channel. Qantas Airline will be able to get high return from their investment by PLC management. References Adams, M. E. (2016).Beyond the Glass: Examining Wine Tasting Room Profitability Using the 4Ps of the Marketing Mix(Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech). Ahmed, S., Rahman, M. (2015). The effects of marketing mix on consumer satisfaction: A literature review from Islamic perspective. Dadzie, K. Q., Amponsah, D. K., Dadzie, C. A., Winston, E. M. (2017). How Firms Implement Marketing Strategies in Emerging Markets: An Empirical Assessment of The 4A Marketing Mix Framework.Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice,25(3), 234-256. Festa, G., Cuomo, M. T., Metallo, G., Festa, A. (2016). The (r) evolution of wine marketing mix: From the 4Ps to the 4Es.Journal of Business Research,69(5), 1550-1555. Jin, N., Kim, J., Kim, K. H. (2015, June). THE SERVICE MARKETING MIX EFFECT ON CUSTOMER EXPERIENCE AND CUSTOMER EQUITY IN THE SERVICE INDUSTRY. In2015 Global Fashion Management Conference at Florence(pp. 838-844). Moorthy, D., Suresh, G. (2014). Consumer Perception on Private Label Products in Coimbatore.Journal of Commerce and Management Thought,5(2), 241. Sari, R. P. (2017). Marketing Mix Implementation in Small Medium Enterprises: A Study of Galeristorey Online Business.ETIKONOMI,16(1), 115-126. Srijumpa, R. (2017). What beyond marketing 3.0: The 4Ss marketing mix strategy for sustainability.Journal of Global Business Review.,15(1), 1-12.

Shareholder Wealth Maximization free essay sample

The ultimate goal of any financial manager (as well as the firm) is the maximization of shareholders’ wealth. A good financial manager therefore should carefully consider and weigh the risk of undertaking a certain project against the profits associated with undertaking such a project. Capital Budgeting techniques enable the manager to make such decisions. The first question that comes to mind is, when making a capital investment decision, should we focus on cash flows or accounting profits. The book is stating â€Å"In measuring wealth or value, we will use cash flows, not accounting profits, as our measurement tool. That is, we will be concerned with when the money hits our hand, when we can invest it and start earning interest on it, and when we can give it back to the shareholders in the form of dividends. Remember, it is the cash flows, not profits that are actually received by the firm and can be reinvested. We will write a custom essay sample on Shareholder Wealth Maximization or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Accounting profits, however, appear when they are earned rather than when the money is actually in hand. † The answer to the question now seems too obvious; it is cash that buys new equipment, used to pay suppliers and employees etc; it is also cash that is to be reinvested to further increase shareholders’ wealth and hence brings the firm closer to its goal. This brings us to another question, should all cash flows associated with the project be considered? Again, the book provides an answer â€Å"In measuring cash flows, however, the trick is to think incrementally. In doing so, we will see that only incremental after-tax cash flows matter. † By incremental we mean â€Å"marginal†, or â€Å"additional†. Incremental cash flows are those cash flows that would affect the capital budgeting decision, but another condition also applies, those incremental cash flows must be considered on after-tax basis, this is because what really increases the value of the firm is the net cash flow (free cash flow) that would be available to the financial manager in considering future investments. In analyzing a project, one has to also consider depreciation, and although depreciation in itself is a noncash expense, it still affects free cash flow because it has an effect on taxes. Depreciation reduces Earnings before Tax (EBT), and therefore reduces the Tax Expense. Another important type of cost that needs to be discussed is what is known as â€Å"Sunk Costs†. As discussed above, only incremental (differential cash flows) need to be considered in making a capital budgeting decision, yet if the firm has, for example an empty lot of land that it had purchased in the past and that lot of land is suitable for the investment decision on hand, does the financial manager need to consider the cost of this piece of land when making his capital budgeting decision? The answer is a firm â€Å"No†; and the reason behind this is real logical: if the investment is not accepted, the cost of the land cannot be recovered, hence whether or not the investment is undertaken; the cost of the land (a sunk cost) is irrelevant to the decision. As I have stated earlier, in making a capital budgeting decision, the financial manager needs to consider only incremental cash flows, and the first of those are the initial outlays. This is because to take up an investment, the financial manager needs to make sure he has the funds initially required to undertake a certain investment (project). Those include, for example, cost of equipment, installation costs, cost of training as well as any increase in Working Capital. Based on the above, and based on the calculations on the attached excel sheet, the initial outlay for the new project is $8,100,000. The second set of cash flows that need to be analyzed is the â€Å"Differential Cash Flows†; again as stated above, those are the cash flows that are relevant to the project under consideration. Those include (but are not limited to), added revenues (less added selling expenses), any labor and/or material saved or incurred, any increase or decrease in overhead costs. Needless to say here that all such cash flows should be analyzed on after-tax basis. Such cash flows, however should not include any finance charges whether those are interest charges paid on a bank loan, interest charges on the firm’s issued debt securities, as well as dividends on preferred and common stock. The reason behind such exclusion is that such finance charges are implicitly accounted for when calculating the cost of capital (also known as the Weighted Average Cost of Capital). Having said that, Caledonia’s differential cash flow (as per the attached xcel sheet) are: Year 12345 $3,956,000 $8,416,000 $10,900,000 $8,548,000 $5,980,000 The last type of cash flows to be examined is the Terminal cash flow which includes all incremental cash flows realized at the termination of the project such as the salvage value of the equipment plus (or minus) any taxable gains or losses associated with selling the equipment. Terminal cash flows also would include any non-expen se cash outlays related to the project such as the recovery of working capital needs. Caledonia’s terminal cash flow then is $5,980,000 as per the above table and the attached excel sheet. A cash flow diagram of the project would provide a full image of the cash out flows and cash inflows associated with the project as it would provide a summary of those cash flows that are to be analyzed using the various capital budgeting techniques: $3,956,000 $8,416,000 $10,900,000 $8,548,000 $5,980,000 0 1 2 3 4 5 $8,100,000) Going back to the main goal of the firm maximization of shareholders’ wealth, an important question arise: how can the financial manager of Caledonia make sure that the new project adds to the value of the firm. Capital Budgeting techniques would help, and the first of such techniques is the Net Present Value method. Net Present Value (NPV) is a capital-budgeting decision criterion defined as the present value of the free cash flows after tax less the project’s initial outlay. The most important advantage of the NPV as per the book is as follows: â€Å"The project’s NPV gives a measurement of the net value of an investment proposal in terms of today’s dollars. Because all cash flows are discounted back to the present, comparing the difference between the present value of the annual cash flows and the investment outlay does not violate the time value of money assumption. † . This method tells us to accept any project for which the NPV is equal to or greater than zero. Applying this to Caledonia, the NPV is equal to $16,731,096. (Please see the full analysis on the attached excel sheet). Another capital-budgeting decision criterion that is widely used by financial managers is the Internal Rate of Return (IRR), which is defined as â€Å"the discount rate that equates the present value of the project’s free cash flows with the project’s initial cash outlay. † The IRR method states that projects with an Internal Rate of Return that is equal to or higher than the required rate of return should be accepted. This makes sense because if the project’s rate of return (IRR) is equal to the required rate of return, then investors would be happy as they are earning the rate of return that they initially require. The Internal Rate of Return of the proposed project is 77% (Please see the attached excel sheet). Based on the above, Caledonia should accept the project since its Net Present Value is greater than zero, and the Internal rate of return is much higher than the required rate of return. Equally important as maximizing shareholders’ wealth, risk management is an important consideration when evaluating new projects. In capital budgeting, risk can be measured from three perspectives; first there is the Systematic Risk, and this type of risk is the risk of the project from the view point of a well-diversified Finally, there is systematic risk, which is the â€Å"risk of the project from the viewpoint of a well-diversified shareholder; this measure takes into account that some of a project’s risk will be diversified away as the project is combined with the firm’s other projects, and, in addition, some of the remaining risk will be diversified away by shareholders as they combine this stock with other stocks in their portfolios† The second type of risk is the Project’s Contribution to Firm Risk, which is the â€Å"the amount of risk that the project contributes to the firm as a whole; this measure considers the fact that some of the project’s risk will be diversified away as the project is combined with the firm’s other projects and assets, but ignores the effects of diversification of the firm’s shareholders† . Finally, there is the Total Risk (or stand alone risk of the project) which combines all risk associated with the project ignoring the fact that some of this risk will be eliminated through diversification. Actually, according to CAPM, the only relevant risk for capital budgeting purposes is Systematic Risk yet sometimes the firm might have undiversified shareholders, and for them the only relevant measure of risk is the project’s contribution to the firm’s risk. For these shareholders, a project’s contribution to firm risk brings the ghost of bankruptcy closer and therefore such measure of risk could be more relevant. Risk can also be incorporated into capital budgeting analysis through the use of simulations. Simulation â€Å"involves the process of imitating the performance of the project under evaluation. This is done by randomly selecting observations from each of the distributions that affect the outcome of the project, and continuing with this process until a representative record of the project’s probable outcome is assembled. † This enables the financial manager to base his decision on a range of possible outcomes. Usually Simulations are accompanied by a Sensitivity analysis (also known as the What-if Analysis). In this analysis, the financial manager changes the value of one input variable (Direct material, Direct Labor, Variable Overhead Rates, Interest Rates) while holding all other variables constant. The distribution of possible net present values and/or internal rates of return â€Å"is then compared with the distribution of possible returns generated before the change was made to determine the effect of the change. † In conclusion, a financial manger must realize that there is always a trade-off between risk and return, he should always utilize the tools available to him in considering any new projects such as capital budgeting techniques (Net Present Value, Internal Rate of Return, †¦etc) as well as simulations and sensitivity analysis to arrive at the most accurate decision. He also need to know how shareholders perceive risk and how they measure it so as to avoid agency problems and arrive at the ultimate goal of the firm- Maximizing shareholders’ wealth. In analyzing Caledonia’s proposed project, we only performed a capital budgeting analysis and based on that the project seems to be acceptable, but the financial manager should also strive to conduct other forms of analysis as stated above to ensure that he has taken all possible measures to achieve his goal. References:

Why Ming China Ended the Treasure Fleet Voyages

Why Ming China Ended the Treasure Fleet Voyages Between 1405 and 1433, Ming China sent out seven gigantic naval expeditions under the command of Zheng He the great eunuch admiral. These expeditions traveled along the Indian Ocean trade routes as far as Arabia and the coast of East Africa, but in 1433, the government suddenly called them off. What Prompted the End of the Treasure Fleet? In part, the sense of surprise and even bewilderment that the Ming governments decision elicits in western observers arises from a misunderstanding about the original purpose of Zheng Hes voyages. Less than a century later, in 1497, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama traveled to some of the same places from the west; he also called in at the ports of East Africa, and then headed to India, the reverse of the Chinese itinerary. Da Gama went in search of adventure and trade, so many westerners assume that the same motives inspired Zheng Hes trips. However, the Ming admiral and his treasure fleet were not engaged in a voyage of exploration, for one simple reason: the Chinese already knew about the ports and countries around the Indian Ocean. Indeed, both Zheng Hes father and grandfather used the honorific hajji, an indication that they had performed their ritual pilgrimage to Mecca, on the Arabian Peninsula. Zheng He was not sailing off into the unknown. Likewise, the Ming admiral was not sailing out in search of trade. For one thing, in the fifteenth century, all the world coveted Chinese silks and porcelain; China had no need to seek out customers - Chinas customers came to them. For another, in the Confucian world order, merchants were considered to be among the lowliest members of society. Confucius saw merchants and other middlemen as parasites, profiting on the work of the farmers and artisans who actually produced trade goods. An imperial fleet would not sully itself with such a lowly matter as trade. If not trade or new horizons, then, what was Zheng He seeking? The seven voyages of the Treasure Fleet were meant to display Chinese might to all the kingdoms and trade ports of the Indian Ocean world and to bring back exotic toys and novelties for the emperor. In other words, Zheng Hes enormous junks were intended to shock and awe other Asian principalities into offering tribute to the Ming. So then, why did the Ming halt these voyages in 1433, and either burn the great fleet in its moorings or allow it to rot (depending upon the source)? Ming Reasoning There were three principal reasons for this decision. First, the Yongle Emperor who sponsored Zheng Hes first six voyages died in 1424. His son, the Hongxi Emperor, was much more conservative and Confucianist in his thought, so he ordered the voyages stopped. (There was one last voyage under Yongles grandson, Xuande, in 1430-33.) In addition to political motivation, the new emperor had financial motivation. The treasure fleet voyages cost Ming China enormous amounts of money; since they were not trade excursions, the government recovered little of the cost. The Hongxi Emperor inherited a treasury that was much emptier than it might have been, if not for his fathers Indian Ocean adventures. China was self-sufficient; it didnt need anything from the Indian Ocean world, so why send out these huge fleets? Finally, during the reigns of the Hongxi and Xuande Emperors, Ming China faced a growing threat to its land borders in the west. The Mongols and other Central Asian peoples made increasingly bold raids on western China, forcing the Ming rulers to concentrate their attention and their resources on securing the countrys inland borders. For all of these reasons, Ming China stopped sending out the magnificent Treasure Fleet. However, it is still tempting to muse on the what if questions. What if the Chinese had continued to patrol the Indian Ocean? What if Vasco da Gamas four little Portuguese caravels had run into a stupendous fleet of more than 250 Chinese junks of various sizes, but all of them larger than the Portuguese flagship? How would world history have been different, if Ming China had ruled the waves in 1497-98?

The destination i will be creating an advertisemen Essays

The destination i will be creating an advertisemen Essays The destination i will be creating an advertisement for is Singapore.Singapore is most appropriate for families.First, it has a Universal Studio in Singapore.So families can have great fun in Universal Studio. Second, Singapores's night view is beautiful, and you can take the ferris wheel to enjoy it. Third, families can play in Sentosa Island.They can swim, play games in the island. At last, the Night Safari is the world's first nocturnal zoo which is one of the most popular tourist attraction in Singapore. Children get a first hand look at how animals behave and interact at night. This is a good place for families to travel.I use the picture of Merlion Park as background picture. Then I use the picture of Universal Studio, Garden By The Bay, Marina Bay Sands and Sentosa Island as the addition attractions. I choose that because Merlion Park is a well-known marketing icon of Singapore depicted as a mythical creature with a lion's head and the body of a fish. It also was the first use d in Singapore as the logo for the tourism board. The other attractions are the most popular attractions in Singapore.

Is unity among Christians important Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Is unity among Christians important - Essay Example Today, many Christians follow the footsteps of St. Paul, preaching unity, while some cherish the freedom that the division provides. The question is: is unity among Christians important? Is reunion possible among the various Christian churches? This essay seeks to answer this question. Discussion The Christian church has faced the threat of schism even in the apostolic era. The struggle for position of authority was known among the apostles even when Jesus Christ was with them. After his ascension, the early church struggle with the interpretation of the gospel. Thus struggle for power and doctrinal conflicts are the foundation of division among Christians. Given that these two factors are human, it will be very difficult to achieve unity among Christians as long as the churches are run by humans. The major obstacle to unification of churches is the lack of license of religious opinion that will follow such unification (Smith, 1912). This obstacle follows from the two factors respons ible for disunity among Christians. In a modern society like ours, where freedom is cherished, most individuals will like to interpret the Bible in their own way in addition to assuming leadership position.

Celiac's Disease Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Celiac's Disease - Essay Example "The incidence of auto immune disorders in the general US population is 3.5 % (The University of Chicago Celiac Disease Center 2)." As per some well informed estimates, nearly 3 million Americans suffer from celiac disease. An average healthy person in the US has roughly 1 in 133 chances of being affected by this disorder. Persons having a first-degree or second-degree relative suffering from celiac disease do often have a more then average probability of being affected by this disease. Most of the patients suffering from celiac disease develop related complications owing to a delayed diagnosis. Thus an early diagnosis of celiac disease is very important as this may significantly reduce the risk of developing further complications (The University of Chicago Celiac Disease Center 2). Though the etiology of celiac disease has not conclusively been established till date, environmental, immunologic and genetic factors have been found to be significant contributors to the disease. The most prominent environmental factor is the association of this disease with gluten. Not only does gluten restriction plays a central role in the treatment of this disease, but the insertion of gluten in the normal appearing rectum and distal ileum of the affected patients results in discernable morphologic changes (Kasper, et al. 1771). An immunologic component to this disease is strongly suspected because of the presence of "serum antibodies- IgA antigliadin, IgA antiendomysial and IgA anti-tissue transglutaminase (tTg) (Kasper et al. 1771)" in the affected patients. Also the patients treated with prednisolone have been found to respond favorably. A genetic factor is certainly associated with this order, since the Caucasians have been found to have a higher prevalence of celiac diseas e as compared to blacks and Asians (Kasper et al. 1771).Though the symptoms of celiac disease may vary from patient to patient, the common symptoms may involve: bloating, abdominal pain, diarrhea, constipation, discolored teeth or loss of enamel, joint pain, significant unexplained weight loss, delayed growth, fractures or thin bones, bulky or loose stools, fatigue, tingling or numbness in the limbs, canker sores, irritability or behavior changes, poor weight gain and missed menstrual periods (National Foundation for Celiac Awareness). Illnesses like: Anemia, depression, Type I diabetes, Sjogren's syndrome, dermatitis herpetiformis, infertility, IBS, peripheral neuropathy, Turner Syndrome, osteoporosis, thyroid disease, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, intestinal cancer, Down syndrome, Williams syndrome, may also be linked to celiac disease (National Foundation for Celiac Awareness).The most credible way of diagnosing celiac sprue is a small intestine biopsy. A biopsy should unexceptionally be performed on the patients exhibiting distinct symptoms of celiac disease, like nutrient deficiency and malabsorption (Kasper et al. 1772). Many a times the patients suffering from celiac disease fail to exhibit any distinct or conspicuous symptoms of this malady. In the recent years, the incidence of asymptomatic cases of celiac disease has been on the rise (Craig et al 1). Thus it is imperative for a

Muhammad The Prophet Essay Example for Free

Muhammad The Prophet Essay Muhammad is considered in Islam to be a messenger and prophet sent by God to guide humanity to the right way. He is considered as the last in a series of prophets sent by God. The Quran is believed to have been presented to Muhammad by God. Muhammad is know as the greatest of all prophets to the Muslims, and his religion as the only accepted religion of God. He is seen by Muslims as a possessor of all virtues. The scattered verses of the Prophet had been inscribed not only on date leaves and shreds of leather but on â€Å"the hearts of men. † Muller says, â€Å"Now Muhammad had certainly not lived like an angel† referring to how Muhammad had raided one of their caravans in the holy month of pilgrimage. He also says this because in 632 Muhammad confused his followers by dying. In war Muhammad lied to his men promising them that if they were to die in battle that they would marry seventy dark-eyed virgins. Muhammad also had preached gospels that where unholy. I his gospels he encouraged war and had no message of peace. He also had eleven wives making him unholy, but this had to do with the time and place that he lived in. to everyone but strong Muslims Muhammad was a bad person and a mortal. But to the Muslims he was a descendent of God. Yet Muhammad was a great man, superior to his time and place. He not only preached but practiced a morality that was superior to his era. If he could be ruthless, he was more often gentle, kind, generous. He could be Christ like in his sympathy for the weak and poor. Through the fog of tradition one can see an attractive humanity, as in his unfailing courtesy touched by shyness. His humble sharing of the household chores. You can understand why he was so deeply loved by those around him. Muhammad is like Jesus in the sense that he showed complete dedication to his God. He also had a power of personality that had as deep of an impression on his followers as Jesus made on his. His basic teaching is clearer and more nearly uniform than that attributed to Jesus. The theme of more than half of the Koran is about an absolutely pure monotheism. â€Å"There is no god but God.† Allah is the God preached by the prophets, from Abraham and Ishmael through Moses to Jesus, and revealed in the Scriptures of the Jews and the Christians. Abraham was the true founder of the faith, Muhammad the last prophet, and the Koran the final perfect revelation

Purpose And Production Of Movie Posters

Purpose And Production Of Movie Posters A poster can be defined as a placard or bill, usually large and often incorporating photographs or illustrations, posted up for advertising or publicity or for decorative purposes. The functions of those which advertise include communication, selling and persuading. This does not preclude them being decorative. Indeed the first job of a poster is to attract the attention of the passerby and only once this is done can a message be delivered. A good poster then is one which is attention-grabbing, succinct, convincing and memorable. To achieve these aims designers may use a large format and bold colour, simple and minimal text and attractive illustrations which psychologically support and reinforce the written words. At the same time designers must consider the constraints imposed by the methods and places of display and competition from other posters whose messages may be as urgent and emphatic. Poster design combines the fine and applied arts, incorporating painting, graphic design, collage, and photography. In countries where television is not a major advertising medium, the poster remains a transient yet effective means of reaching the widest audience on behalf of culture, commerce, and ideology. Posters have become an integral part of the cityscape. They are pasted next to each other on large plywood hoardings attached to windowless walls of old buildings or onto fences surrounding parks and construction sites. Officially designated for poster display, these well-kept colourful quilts of public billboards not only disseminate information on cultural, sports, and political events but also serve as constantly changing outdoor exhibitions of graphic art. Through such widespread and continuous exposure, poster design has become one of the most accessible and effective art forms, reaching out and influencing even that part of the public that does not frequent museums or galleries. In juried exhibitions, the best posters achieve national exposure, and for many graphic artists, book illustration and poster design are important vehicles for a wider recognition of their personal style both at home and abroad. A feature common to all the designers is their striving for self-expression in an environment that demands political conformity. They seem intent on designing posters that have an emotional impact and appeal to the sense but that also challenge the viewer to an intellectual response. Their imagery includes lyrical and neo-surrealist overtones, drama, irony, or playful humor, and the message is delivered in a variety of styles. A poster constitutes a mirror for the times it is created in. Like a mirror it reflects the political and the social situation, it informs about the repertoire of movie theaters and dramatic theaters, it announces sporting events, it encourages purchasing certain goods. The socio-political poster plays a specific propaganda role. Those who commission it expect that effective impact of the work of art upon the viewer will allow them to get closer to their desired goal. The goal varies depending on the circumstances: winning a war, or a presidential election, or a parliamentary campaign; a struggle to alter social behaviours or attitudes. History of the art of movie poster Cinema and film posters are the physical incarnation of the special movies we have enjoyed through the years. Although there is a big market for collecting film posters, they were never intended or created to be sold to the public. They were merely meant to promote and entice viewers to come to the local theatres that were screening the films. Today these rare original movie posters are in great demand. They are the tangible souvenirs of favourite films and stars whose characters we fell in love with. Ironically in the early days of movie making actors were not usually depicted on the film posters. The title of the film and the producer and directors names were usually the attraction until Hollywood realized that it was the actors who brought in the viewers. It was at that time that the stars of movies were then plastered on each poster giving life to a new era in the film industry. Movie posters created before the eighties were mainly returned to the studios or poster sources and destroyed when the archives became full or the films run had ended. Unfortunately many early film posters made for hit movies such as Casablanca, King Kong, Frankenstein and The Wizard of Oz were destroyed as a result of natural disasters that occurred during World War II. As people became more aware of their value theatre owners began to ignore return policies and those film posters that were spared are widely sought today by collectors and dealers. Before 1940, each film studio maintained its own offices (or exchange) in every major city. The studios would send the films and their posters to all the exchanges and from there; they would be distributed to the surrounding theatres. The big city theatres would just go to the exchange and pick up the films and posters right before they would show them (for big films they might order extra posters in advance of the opening to create an elaborate display). Theatres in smaller towns would often receive their films via Greyhound bus, which back then serviced just about every town in the country. The films would be in containers that would have the posters (often just one or two one-sheets and a set of lobby cards) tucked in a pouch on the outside of the container. Most theatres would show a film for 3 or 4 days (as part of a program that might include 2 features, a cartoon, a newsreel, and possibly a serial chapter), and then send it on (via bus) to the next theatre. Often the theatre manager would put the film on a late night bus right after his last showing and it would arrive at the next theatre the following morning, in time to be displayed for that nights show. The film might go by bus through a circuit of many theatres before returning to an exchange. After the film returned to the exchange, it would go back out to other theatres, and often the posters had to be replaced, as they were torn and tattered from being put up and taken down several times. This more than anything explains why posters from before 1940 are extremely rare. Theatre owners couldnt give their posters to collectors, no matter how hard they begged, because they were needed at the next theatre. This whole system of having to deal with each studio separately might sound very inefficient, but remember that in the 1920s and 1930s many theatres were owned by the studios and so only showed that studios product; and most of the independents would only get their films from a couple of studios, so it wasnt that complicated. But if all the posters were returned with the films, how are there any posters at all from before 1940? For one thing, one type of poster, window cards (14 x 22) were bought in large quantities by an individual theatre and (after they added their name and play dates to the top) distributed to store windows around town. Those were given away after the film was done playing. Another way they survive is in the backs of old picture frames, for framers would often use window cards (obtainable for free) as backing boards. But as for other posters remaining today, a huge amount come from other countries, for those did not have to be returned to the U.S.; at the time, the value of the posters was less than the cost of the postage to return them. There have been huge finds of pre-1940 U.S. posters in Canada, Columbia, and many other countries. In addition there have been some great finds in the U.S., such as the Cozy Theater Collection in Los Angeles. This was a theatre that maintained its own exchange of posters from the early 1930s to the 1950s for distribution to Los Angeles theatres. In 1968 the theatre owner offered his entire collection of posters (containing tens of thousands of posters and lobby cards, and hundreds of thousands of stills) for sale for $25,000, and it was hard to find a buyer! At todays prices, the collection would sell for millions of dollars. Other than the huge finds (which probably account for 90% of the pre-1938 posters known), posters also are sometimes found in one other main way. In the 1910s and 1920s (and to a lesser extent in the 1930s), builders would often look for material to put within the walls of buildings (or under the floors) to serve as insulation. Some enterprising builders hooked up with poster exchanges to take large amounts of outdated posters and put them in the walls of their new homes. I know of at least ten occasions where someone has been remodelling their house in the 1990s and discovered posters in the walls or under the floor. Sometimes they are mouldy and mildewed and require large amounts of restoration, but sometimes they are so tightly pressed together that they survive in relatively excellent condition. The vast majority of pre-1938 posters known were found in one of the above ways. Very rarely a theatre owner (such as the legendary Charles Dyas, who started collecting in 1922) might order extra posters to keep, or someone who had access to posters might keep a particular poster as a keepsake, but by and large absolutely everybody who handled posters viewed them as disposable advertising, much like newspapers. Old newspapers (like comics books or baseball cards) survive in quantity only because they were sold by the millions, and some people never throw out anything. Movie posters, on the other hand, were never obtainable by the general public. It does seem particularly amazing that the studios themselves never thought to maintain an archive of their posters. In recent years some of them have spent hundreds of thousands of dollars buying back a tiny percentage of the posters that they literally sold for pennies each! am not understating the rarity of pre-1938 posters when I say that for at least a large number of films not a single poster or lobby card is known, and for many others only lobby cards or window cards are known. It is very unusual to find a film from before 1938 from a major studio on which more than ten copies of a one-sheet is known. (Posters from lesser studios are often found in large quantity because when the studio goes out of business they often have hundreds of copies of each poster on hand. An example is the Norman Film Company, which made all-black cast films. Huge supplies of these posters were found, and they are among the most common of all silent posters.) The system of every studio maintaining its own supply of posters in every one of its branch offices became very cumbersome, and in 1940, National Screen Service was formed. Warehouses (called poster exchanges) were set up in most major cities across the U.S., and each studio contributed its posters from the last couple of years to get it started (Exchanges definitely had posters from 1937-39 in abundance, but nothing like the quantities they would have of post-1940 material. The exchanges had virtually nothing from before 1937, which explains the vast rarity difference between pre-1937 and post-1940 material. For each new release in 1940, the printers put National Screen Service (NSS) numbers on the bottom right of every poster. For 1940 only, they used a first number that began with 40, followed by a slash mark and more numbers (for example 4011/524). The 40 referred to 1940, and the rest of the numbers referred to in what order the poster had been printed, to make it easier for people to find the posters when stored in a large warehouse (many films had similar or the same titles). In 1941, the simplified the code to be just 41, followed by a slash mark and three numbers (for example 41/245). This was unfortunate, for in the present day it has resulted in acknowledgeable collectors assuming that they had a limited edition poster (in the previous case, #41 out of an edition of 245). This system continued all the way through the late 1970s, and makes identifying the year of 1940-1979 posters extremely easy. It also makes identifying re-issues simple, for they would put the re-issue year in the NSS number, and put a big capital R in front of it. So in the above example, if the 1941 film, NSS #41/245, was re-issued in 1954, it would have a new number such as R54/621. It appears each exchange received a huge number of each poster (at least). I say this for two reasons. One is the economics of full-colour printing are such that once you get the presses rolling, it is very cheap to keep on printing, and it is much more expensive to reprint items. Thus, it just would not make sense to print less than say five or ten thousand of a full-colour item. Second, when exchanges were bought out in the 1960s (see below), it was not at all uncommon for a single exchange to have well over 100 of a single item, even after years of distributing that item. Of course there was not an even distribution of items, but I think it fair to say that for most items that were in exchanges, hundreds of each survives today. I also think it fair to say that for most pre-1937 items less than ten of each survive today (with the exception of those items that were found in huge quantities, such as the Norman Film Company posters). In the 1940s, the studios would charge a rental fee to the theatre, which would return the poster after using it (hence the warning that has frightened collectors for years, beginning This poster is the property of National Screen Service). At some point NSS realized that it was easier to just print more posters and sell them outright (probably this was due to rising postal rates. I have owned many posters that were mailed folded in the 1940s, without an envelope, and the cost was three cents!) I have brochures from exchanges from the early 1960s, where they offer new one-sheets for 25 cents each, with other prices on other sizes. The brochure might say 1964 and 1965 one-sheets, 25 cents each, 1963 and earlier 15 cents each! This shows they had no clue that these posters had collectible value, but also that there were next to no collectors before the early 1960s (just like comic book collecting). The few collectors there were in the 1950s kept buying all the posters they could afford from exchanges and didnt talk about it. Then in the mid-1960s, some enterprising individuals began to buy the individual poster exchanges. I have no idea what they paid, but I have no doubt it was an absolute steal, as the exchanges thought they had warehouses full of practically worthless old paper. (Of course I admire these individuals, for that one business decision made them, financially set for life. They saw an opportunity no one else saw, and they took advantage of it.) The new owners began offering old posters at collectors prices, usually around $1.00 or $1.50 for an older one-sheet. They did next to no advertising, and they often sold a great deal to the local collectors, who heard about them by word of mouth. Some individuals, such as Tanner Miles, would buy posters from the exchanges in huge quantities and try to double their money at collectible shows. (My own personal introduction to movie posters came in 1968 at an Oklahoma City collectibles show, where I, being a full-time comic book dealer, was intrigued b y the many boxes of movie posters I saw at Tanner Miles tables. I spent over $40 with him, a huge amount of money for me at the time, and I went home with a large box of posters and lobby sets). But it didnt take long for the dealers to see that they were rapidly running out of the most popular titles (particularly horror and sci-fi) and they started raising prices on popular titles. The two exchanges that were best organized and sold the most posters to collectors were Theatre Poster Exchange in Memphis, Tennessee, and Movie Poster Service in Canton, Oklahoma (both are still in business and both give excellent service). I remember seeing better quality posters priced at $20 in the early 1970s, and wondering how much higher prices could go! But it is important to realize that pre-1937 posters were always scarce, even in 1965. I remember seeing a Valentino lobby card in 1969, and the price was $20, when virtually no post-1940 item sold for as much. The price was high because even then, silent items were virtually unheard of. I have heard old-time collectors talk of the days when they bought Frankenstein and Dracula lobby sets from exchanges, but I know this never happened (ma ybe it was House of Frankenstein and House of Dracula and the stories got embellished over the years). Sometime in the late 1970s, those who printed movie posters began printing huge numbers of extra posters which they did not fold in the regular way, but instead left unfolded (rolled). It is not clear to me if this was done with the studios permission or knowledge, or if it was done independently by the printers. I would think it may well have started around the time of Star Wars or especially Return/Revenge of the Jedi, when these posters instantly began selling for collectible prices. Maybe someone contacted someone at the printers and persuaded them to print a bunch of extra posters. Unfortunately if this was done without the studios knowledge, then well probably never know the full story, for the principals involved are unlikely to admit to it. At this time, several collectibles dealers became tied to whoever supplied rolled one-sheets, and began offering them to collectors. The odd thing is that it remained a very clandestine business, shrouded in mystery. Even today, I have no idea who prints the rolled one sheets, how they can be contacted, how they can be purchased directly, and so forth. Of course those who act as middlemen for distributing these posters dont want the answers to get out, but its just a matter of time before it happens. The artist given credit for creating the movie poster was Jules Cheret who created two posters in the 1890s. One was a film short called Projections Artistiques, and the other a Theatre program called Pantomimes Lumineuses. During this early time movie posters would not contain the title of a film short but just the name of the company who made them. 1896 marked the first time a poster would be made for a specific movie and not just a movie company. The film was called LArroseur Arrose. It was about a kid getting into trouble with a water hose spraying a gardener. The 1900s would mark the beginning of the utilization of modern film techniques which would be used in the American movie The Great Train Robbery. The movie only last eleven minutes and was extremely popular. By the end of the first decade of the last century movies had become a great source of entertainment for the public with movie companies growing in greater numbers. From this time period, the movie poster would get a standard size known as the one sheet measuring 27 x 41. The Genesis of the Modern Film Poster A common format of the film posters from the period preceding the Nickelodeon Boom of 1905-6 was what Kathryn Helgessen Fuller refers to as the audience image. (Kathryn, 1999) From Edisons 1901 poster for a Vitascope exhibition in Birmingham to a Cook and Harris advertisement for a 1905 showing at the Elks Opera House in New York, the audience is shown in almost stock fashion in these images, namely, enthralled by the wonder of the new medium. On these grounds, Fuller identifies the audience image with what Tom Gunning has called the cinema of attractions, a mode of spectatorship and film production which preceded the arrival of narrative cinema and in which the apparatus and its illusion of motion was itself the star attraction (Tom, 1990). In these terms, the audience functions in conjunction with a larger attempt to foreground the apparatus and the uncanny illusion of reality it produced rather than to advertise the content of the film. The latter is utilized only secondarily, that is, only in so far as it magnifies the former (Michal, 1992). While Fuller is eager to establish the virtual disappearance of the audience image from film advertising as coinciding with the movement away from actualities and toward narrative cinema, the audience does not necessarily disappear from film posters after the first decade of the twentieth century (Sandy, 1994). Rather, they that take on a new role, one that is best illustrated by a Mutual Movies ad from 1913. Here, the audience is divorced from the apparatus. Gone are the catatonic viewers of the Edison images. Instead, these well-dressed filmgoers serve to assuage the fear of the middle class audience that theatre owners were now courting and to counter campaigns waged by activists like Jane Addams who saw the Nickelodeon as a house of vice. While the waning of the 19th-century fascination and astonishment with the cinematic apparatus certainly transformed the audience image, its disappearance only occurs after the middle class audience had been successfully procured by the film ind ustry (Sandy, 1994). From this point on, it is the moving image itself, rather than the apparatus or the spectators that comes to take precedence 87 in publicity material. As the pair of posters for D.W. Griffith 1915 film Birth of A Nation illustrate, for the most part, this meant either lithographs which took from the circus and other promotional material a bold and dramatic style, or posters based upon still photographs from the film (David, 1995). It is crucial to understand this movement toward the still in the context of the 1909 drive of the Motion Picture Patent Company (MPPC) to consolidate and standardize distribution and exhibition (Pafic News Service, 1995). First, through what Richard Abel calls a combined strategy of lawsuits and licensing and second, through the formation of the conglomerate General Film Company in 1910, the MPPC established film distribution and exhibition as, for all intents and purposes, a closed market(Nancy, 1999). In light of this consolidation, underway in virtually all aspects of the industry, the still offered an additional benefit. Since producing ads for specific theatres would be impractical for a company such as the GFC, which served an extensive and diverse group of exhibitors, the still presented an image devoid of the geographical specificity of the audience image, one that could be mass produced without variation. What ensues is a standardization that begins with the reconfiguration of the poster itself. For example, in 1909, the Klame Company began creating pos ters in dimensions that would be equal to the size of eight lobby cards (seven scenes and a title card), allowing streamlined shipping and standardized lobby displays (Engineering News-Record, 1999). The standardization of form was followed by the standardization of content as printers such as Hernegan and Donaldson in Cincinnati created a line of stock posters that represented the prevailing subjects of the films of the time and that could easily be tweaked to represent a given show (Alan, 1999). With shipping expedited and printing costs minimized, film manufacturers soon began sending vast quantities of literatureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦free to every exhibitor,(Moving Picture world, 1911) and trade publications such as Moving Picture World began offering advice to exhibitors on lobby displays, promotional tie-ins and publicity stunts (Parsons, 1927). In an article entitled Theatre Managers, Wake Up! the trade journal encourages the obsessive decoration of the Nickelodeon It is all well en ough to let the storefront make the circus display outside his place in order to attract a crowd (Parsons, 1927). However, the shift from the audience image to the still image initiated a standardization that does not alone account for the interconnectedness or metonymic exchange between image and film that began this inquiry. The latter must be understood in conjunction with an exhibition practice that preceded both the establishment of conglomerates and subsequent standardization of exhibition. As Tom Gunning points out, it was common practice in the 19th century to begin a showing with a projected still image which would, after a dramatic pause, suddenly be granted movement (Tom, 1999). In fact; Albert E. Smith developed a water cell between the film and the light source that would allow the projector to hold the still without catching fire precisely for this purpose (Andre While the aesthetic of astonishment and the cinema of attractions were relatively short-lived modes of spec tatorship, this residual connection between the still and its magical transformation gained a new currency within the film poster. In focusing on dramatic, climactic scenes, posters such as Griffiths Birth of A Nation presented images that were themselves caught between motion and stillness and as such asked the audience to internally re-enact this early practice. From the point of view of spectatorship, the result of this standardization between images in combination with the implied motion of the still itself is a peculiar displacement that Andrà © Bazin would later diagnosis as the art of not seeing films. In a 1944 article of the same name, Bazin, perhaps the ultimate cinephile, makes the provocative claim that a film can be legitimately be read, at least with seventy-five percent accuracy, by the posters which advertise it. In essence, by reading the image through an elaborate graphology the image gives way to the film proper and in those cases where the film one sees through the poster is of inferior quality one can safely choose not to attend its showing. Seeing the film no longer necessitates the theatre or even the film itself. The arrival of the still as the dominant graphical reference to film experience in combination with the standardization or codification of advertising practices make possible the metonymic exchange between the poster and the moving image of the film. With the web of standardization established between images, the film poster appropriates the ability of the filmic image, both moving and still, to exceed itself only to recuperate this excess elsewhere. This inquiry has focused on the poster and obviously each visual mode of extension constitutes its own unique discourse that must be approached on its own terms. However, one cant help but think that in a general sense it is this dispersal, endemic to the filmic form and perfected with the commercialization of the film industry, that grants film, a by now thoroughly antiquated technology, its continued relevance and vitality. In these terms, the evolution we have traced through the film poster is not all together different from the curre nt migration of the cinematic across media and in turn time and space. The artefact that Barthes finds in the trail of posters is therefore both the anomalous element within our conventional understanding of the cinematic experience and also a record of the past. The latter, however, points simultaneously back to the birth of commercial cinema at the same time it prefigures the migration of the cinema across digitized formats where the materiality of the film and its space of presentation bring this process of portability to near completion. The Change of movie posters over decades 1910s 1920s In the early days movie stars werent known, so the names of actors did not appear on the posters. Besides the movie studios liked it that way so they wouldnt have to pay more money to actors. Things certainly have changed with actors like Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and Bruce Willis commonly getting checks over or around 20 million dollars per movie. During this early period in movie history movie studios realized that movie stars were as much an attraction for the moviegoer as the movie itself. So the movie star was born, and movie posters started showcasing the names of the actors as well as the title of the movie. The bigger the star the bigger their name appeared on the poster. Other promotional materials were soon used such as the lobby card and the press book. In the 1920s, the golden age of the silent movies, posters became more artistic and spectacular. Accomplished Artists were hired to paint portraits of the stars for the movie studios to be used as movie posters. By the mid 1920s talkies as they were called were introduced. Movie attendance shot up to 110 million by 1929 from 60 million in 1927. During this time movie poster images would become sharper due to a new printing process by the Morgan Litho Company. 1930s The Golden Age of Movies as it is known in the movie industry saw the beginning of great musicals, gangster movies, westerns, and horror movies created for the growing public hunger for movies. One of the biggest money makers of all time came from the end of this decade, a little picture called Gone with the Wind. Two styles of movie poster were created, one sheets and half sheets. Major movies would sometimes get more than the two different styles. However due to the depression of the time a lot of movie materials had been created more cheaply, causing movie posters to lose some of the quality as they had previously. 1940s 1950s World War II came and war movies were the biggest theme for movies of the time. A number of movie stars joined the military and the entire industry did what they could for the war effort. The movie industry cut advertising costs using cheaper paper for posters due to the paper shortage of the war time. The 1950s would see the invention of the movie industrys biggest competitor, the television set. The movie industry came out with bigger screens for large scale movies like Ben Hur, and 3-D movies. Drive-in movies were at their peak, and movie posters adopted a style of the new fan magazines with colour photographs of the major movie stars and large stock lettering. 1960s 1970s Teen movies were the big thing in the early sixties. Beach movies and Elvis Presley ruled the movie theatres. James Bond stirred up the action genre, but by the end of the sixties into the seventies times were a changing and posters reflected this change of attitude towards sex and violence. The 1970s were more of the same as everything changed. Gone were the simple days of Andy Griffith and Mayberry. Hello Dirty Harry! Before the decade was over Clint Eastwood would make our day, we would see gangsters in The Godfather, cheer Sylvester Stallone as Rocky, race off to other parts of the galaxy in Star Wars and Star Trek and be made to believe a man can fly in Superman. Movie posters used photography occasionally using drawing and painting styles. Star Wars and Star Trek posters were the most popular creating collectors out of many today. Movie posters at this time were now being printed on a clay-coated paper which gave them a glossy finish. 1980s 1990s The age of special effects blockbusters, the 1980s broke records with awesome films like The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi, E.T., more Superman movies, Raiders of the Lost Ark, 2 more Indiana Jones movies, more James Bond movies, Ghostbusters, Batman, Back to the Future, The Terminator, more Rocky movies, and dont forget Rambo. This decade meant more screens per theatre and more advertising material. The mini sheet was invented, and the video store became popular creating the video store poster. The 1990s saw the beginning of new computerization technology used in films like Jurassic Park. Batman was forever until the movie Batman and Robin, Arnold was back, and Independence Day blew away the competition. The one sheet continued to be used for posters as well as the mini sheet. 2000- Today Spider-man has web spun his way into the record books, DVDs are slowly replacing the VHS video, and posters are sold in many stores with reprints of movie posters currently being mass produced. The beginning movie po

Factors Influencing Family Physicians Prescribing Health And Social Care Essay

Due to turning international concern about the quality of ordering in primary attention, research workers and policy shapers have made interventional schemes to better prescribing. Drug outgos are large load and threaten of wellness attention budgets. It is disputing undertaking to better ordering form in medical pattern. The ordering wont by general practician is a complex activity and depends on the interplay of many factors. In recent decennaries, these factors have been shown to act upon household doctor prescribing form ( 1 ) . ( 1 consequence of advertisement ) Analyzing factors associated with household doctors ‘ prescribing is considered to be of high value since high per centum of drugs are prescribed by primary attention doctors. These factors interact in non additive and unpredictable ways ( 2 ) . ( 2 factors act uponing GP Allan ) . As consequence of assorted influences, ordering wont alterations of the single doctor normally occur easy. ( 3 ) ( drug prescription forms Bjerrum ) . For the range of this reappraisal we classify factors associated with household doctors ‘ ordering into four classs. The first class includes factors related to doctors ; age, sex, old ages of experience, and uninterrupted medical instruction. The 2nd class includes factors related pattern scenes ; size of pattern, figure of patients, guidelines and usage of drug pharmacopeia. The 3rd class includes factors related to drugs: advertizement and cost. The 4th class includes factors related to patients ; age, sex, comorbidity and multiple health care suppliers. Therefore, the purpose of this reappraisal is to place and to measure factors impacting household physician ordering behavior. The research inquiry formulated to province, what are the factors impacting household physician ordering behavior.MethodsIn this literature reappraisal we chose loosely inclusive hunt scheme with two phases. In phase one, a hunt has been conducted utilizing the undermentioned cardinal words: â€Å" prescription † , â€Å" prescribing † , â€Å" prescribing forms † ordering attitudes † , â€Å" ordering factors † , â€Å" ordering indexs † , primary attention ordering † and â€Å" GP prescribing † . In 2nd phase, after calculating out the factors associated with doctors ordering forms based on first phase, a 2nd hunt has been conducted utilizing the undermentioned footings â€Å" guidelines and ordering † , â€Å" drug cost † , â€Å" drug advertisement † , â€Å" drug formulary † , â€Å" polypharmacy † , repetition prescriptions † and â€Å" new drug † . We searched midplane, Pub med and Eric from 1990 to 2009. From articles fulfilling preliminary inclusion standards, the mention lists were reviewed. Based on the initial reappraisal our concluding inclusion and exclusion standards were determined. Study Selection The inclusion standards are: a ) articles assessed ordering in primary attention scene, B ) article recovering information from prescription database. We excluded articles written in linguistic communication other than English, surveies that assessed specific drug group or drugs for specific disease. There were no geographic restrictions.ConsequencesWe found 31 surveies that met our standards. All surveies used a database for informations aggregation, 12 and 13 prospective and retrospective surveies severally ( table 1 ) .Factors related to doctor:It has been found that there is a important relation between certain primary attention physician features and their prescribing behaviour. Younger primary attention doctors have higher rates of new drug use. Female sex and recent graduation i.e. less old ages in pattern are associated with high drug use rates ( 4,5,6,7,8,9 ) ( 1, 4,18, 19,31,32 ) .One survey showed that no influence of physician age or figure of old ages in pattern on polyp harmacy in peculiar ( 6 ) ( 18 ) . High prescribers did non differ significantly from low prescribers in age, figure of old ages in pattern, average pattern size or patient age. ( 9 ) ( 32 ) Gill et Al has found no effects of doctor ‘s ethnicity and topographic point of graduation on ordering forms ( 10 ) . ( 2 ) , However, two surveies demonstrated that doctors who were foreign trained tend to hold high prescribing rates and cost ( 9 ) ( 28,32 ) . Besides medical school found to be a factor associated with higher new drug use ( 7 ) ( 19 ) . Continuous medical instruction ( CME ) has an consequence acceleration of new drug acceptance ( 5 ) ( 4 ) . An educational intercession plans improve ordering forms and may ensue in important clinical benefits ( 11,12 ) ( 3, 25 ) . It is besides noticed that ordering wonts are influenced by scientific documents, specialist recommendations and meetings ( 3 ) ( 14 ) . Financial inducement found to hold a impermanent consequence on altering prescription behaviour ( 13 ) ( 26 ) . One survey showed that guidelines had a small consequence on antihypertensive drug usage. ( 14 ) ( 13 ) Adoption of new drug is of import ordering factor. Among five drugs studied Steffensen et Al found hapless understanding between early, intermediate and late prescribers. Late prescribing was associated with female doctors. ( 5 ) ( 4 )Factors related to patternThere is a additive correlativity between the figure of prescribed drugs and figure of general practicians in the pattern ( 15, 16 ) ( 12, 15 ) . Physicians with big pattern prescribed more drugs than those with little pattern ( 4, 16 ) ( 1, 15 ) . In footings of polypharmacy, one survey showed 56 % of ordering fluctuation between general practicians could be explained by forecasters related to pattern construction, work load, clinical work profile and ordering profile ( 17 ) ( 6 ) . It has been noticed that high work load patterns tend to hold a high prescribing rates. ( 4,18 ) ( 1,27 ) , However in patterns with big figure of listed patients, doctors prescribed fewer drugs per patient compared to patterns with low figure of listed patents. ( 6 ) ( 18 ) McCarthy et Al found a important correlativity between the figure of drugs prescribed and the figure of physician working in the pattern. ( 15 ) ( 12 ) The diffusion clip of new drug after its release is longer in partnership pattern compared to individual handed pattern, the average diffusion times are 41 and 119 yearss for partnership and individual handed patterns severally. ( 5 ) ( 4 ) Fee-for-service type of pattern was considered to be associated with higher rates of new drug use. ( 7 ) ( 19 ) . Doctors practising in rural countries and holding high proportion of aged have lower new drugs use rates than those practising in urban countries. ( 7 ) ( 19 ) . Use of drug formulary and agreed verbal prescribing policy had no important association with the figure of drug prescribed. ( 15 ) ( 12 ) . Computerized reminders have some consequence on physician ordering behaviour. ( 19 ) ( 24 )Factors related to drugsDoctors ‘ interaction with drug industry found to get down every bit early as medical school. ( 20 ) ( 373.26 ) .It has been found that every bit many as 80 % of GP ‘s in both partnership and individual handed patterns had prescribed new drug 6 hebdomads and 21 hebdomads after its release severally. ( 5 ) ( 4 ) Tamblyn et Al addressed that the new drugs have 8 to 17 fold differences in use rate, and were prescribed by 1.3 % -22.3 % of doctors. ( 7 ) ( 19 ) . There is a additive relationship between polypharmacy and underprescribing. The higher the figure of the drugs, the higher the estimated chance of underprescribing is. ( 21 ) ( 23 ) . Provision of drug cost information in a computing machine based patient record system was found to hold no consequence on overall prescription drug cost to patients, nevertheless there was differences in single drug categories. It besides has been found that doctors are unfamiliar with the costs ofA medicines they normally prescribe. ( 22 ) ( 33 ) One survey has indicated that a important proportion in volume and costs is straight affected by hospital-initiated prescriptions. ( 9 ) ( 32 ) Repeat ordering accounted for the huge bulk of all points every bit good as prescribing costs. It accounted for 75 % and 81 % of all points and ordering costs severally. ( 23 ) ( 7 ) Among aged patients, the mean prescription was 99.4 % per 100 general practician contacts ; 72.1 % were repeat prescriptions. ( 24 ) ( 17 ) . Ashly et Al has found that ordering and professional behaviour appear to be affected by the present extent of physician-industry interactions. ( 25 ) ( 29 ) Reducing interactions between doctors and pharmaceutical gross revenues representatives has resulted in improved prescribing. ( 8 ) ( 31 )Factors related to patientsThe drug use rate additions with patient ‘s age. Patient ‘s age has more important consequence on drug use rate compared to patient ‘s sex ( 26, 27 ) ( 11, 16 ) . Repeat prescriptions significantly increase with patient ‘s age. It has been found every bit high as 72 – 90 % for patients aged 85 and over ( 23,24 ) ( 7,17 ) . In footings of patient ‘s sex, female patients were found to be given more drug points but less repetition prescription than male patients ( 27 ) ( 16 ) . In aged population, more than 60 % of perennial prescribing was for female patients. ( 24 ) ( 17 ) . Among patients aged 79 and under, female patients were pre scribed to significantly more times than males ( 28 ) ( 9 ) . Buck et Al found that female sex was associated with potentially inappropriate medicines ( 29 ) ( 22 ) . Patients with greater figure of chronic conditions, multiple health care suppliers and multiple clinic visits have higher hazard of developing polypharmacy and relentless polypharmacy ( 30 ) ( 8 ) . Ordering rates every bit good as costs increase with morbidity. ( 31 ) ( 10 ) .DiscussionIn this literature reappraisal we observed that doctors ordering behaviours are affected linearly or reciprocally by many factors. Doctors A important relation has been found between certain physician features and ordering behaviour. The findings that younger male doctors had higher ordering rate may be related to a causal nexus between some physician features, ordering behaviour and patient results. It is non clearly known why sicker patients would seek immature or male doctors, but these doctors may prefer more aggressive intervention than female doctors and older co-workers. ( 4 ) ( 1 ) Higher rates of drug use among younger doctors may be related the leaning for aggressive intercession, more established ordering behaviour in older doctors or targeted selling patterns. ( 32,33 ) ( 19 — -47,48 ) The determination that male doctor had higher rates of new drug use was supported by other surveies. ( 34 ) ( 19 — -8 ) Female sex, little list size, lower diagnostic activity per patient and restrictive attitude toward pharmacotherapy tantrum into topology of conservative doctors. Supported by some surveies, con servative doctors described as being light users of drugs. ( 35, 36 ) ( 4 — -9,19 ) It is surprising that for those doctors who qualified from different states, their ethnicity had no consequence on their prescribing behaviour. ( 10 ) ( 2 ) This could be related to secondary socialisation which occurs in approximately 5 to 6 old ages. ( 37 ) ( 2 — -2 ) Socialization through graduate student preparation and practicing in group pattern alterations ordering behaviour. ( 38 ) ( 2 — — -3 ) There was no direct nexus between postgraduate preparation degree and ordering behaviour. The degree of postgraduate preparation can be a factor in finding how readily physicians accept commercial beginnings of ordering information. Handouts from pharmaceutical companies were rated as really of import or of import beginnings of CME by significantly fewer certified members than non-certified members of the College of Family Physicians of Canada. ( 39 ) ( presc by can — — 59 ) Interventional CME for intervention of chronic diseases for illustration bronchial asthma resulted in some betterment in ordering behaviour. ( 11 ) ( 3 ) CME and other societal facts have been found gas pedals for new drug acceptance. ( 40, 41 ) ( 4 — -9,19 ) It has been suggested that there is a nexus between increasing age, non-attendance at CME classs, and inappropriate prescribing. ( 42 ) ( presc by can — 24 ) . But there was no adequate information, nevertheless, to research this hypothesis farther. Other surveies do non back up this account. ( 43,44, 45 ) ( presc by can 44-47 ) The intent of the execution of clinical guidelines is to better quality of attention. However, surveies have showed that the US National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure ( JNC ) guidelines apparently had small consequence on the form of antihypertensive drug prescribing. ( 14, 46, 47 ) ( 13, 13 — — 21 ) Two possible grounds, foremost is that doctors may be loath to alter drug therapy because of already good controlled blood force per unit area. Second ground may be that ordering behaviour was influenced by pharmaceutical maker promotional activities. ( 14 ) ( 13 ) Practice Puting Practice puting features have been shown to act upon ordering behaviour. The informations clearly demonstrated a relation between polypharmacy and pattern puting features. Practices with big figure of patients have fewer drugs prescribed per patient compared with patterns with low figure of patients. ( 48, 49 ) ( 18-22,23 ) This determination was consistent with other surveies. ( 6 ) ( 18 ) Busy working doctor were more inclined to order multiple drugs than doctors with low work load. ( 50, 51 ) ( 18 — — 24,25 ) It has been noticed that new drugs have been adopted by partnership patterns faster than unassisted patterns. ( 5 ) ( 4 ) The type of pattern besides influences doctors ‘ usage of drugs. Salaried physicians practising in government-funded community wellness centres had better ordering forms than doctors in fee-for-service group patterns. ( 52 ) ( pres bycan 5 ) Free-for-service patterns were associated with higher rates of new drug use. ( 7 ) ( 19 ) the ma gnitude of this association was non big plenty to anticipate major cost salvaging related to new drug use. ( 53 ) ( 19 — -52 ) . It has been noticed that fee for service patients were more likely to follow JNC guidelines than the patients with wellness care organisation insurance. Therefore, the patients with wellness care organisation insurance had no penchant for promoting their doctors to choose more cost-efficient drugs. In contrast, fee for service patients appeared to hold more penchant for choosing lower cost drugs. ( 14 ) ( 13 ) Although, fiscal inducements represent a non-voluntary scheme to implement alteration in medical pattern, it had a limited, impermanent consequence on the prescribing behaviour. ( 13, 54 ) ( 26, 26 — — -18 ) Working in rural countries influenced ordering behaviour. Lower rates of new drug use among doctors working in rural countries may be due comparative isolation of rural doctors from co-workers who may hold influence in the determination to order new intervention. ( 55 ) ( 19 — — 22 ) Merely one survey concluded that there was no important difference in figure of different drugs prescribed by patterns runing a formulary from that found among patterns with no formulary. This could be due to, that all doctors in those patterns may non follow with the formulary, or pharmacopeias contained a narrow scope of drugs. ( 15 ) ( 12 ) However, this determination was non supported by other surveies. The usage of pharmacopeia has been found to act upon ordering behaviours and cut down costs. ( 56, 57 ) ( 12 — -1,3 ) Drugs There are many factors related to drugs that may act upon physician prescribing behaviour. Early usage of new drugs may non be compatible with appropriate prescribing. Newness should non be seen as a virtuousness in a pharmaceutical merchandise and that it is important that physicians think more carefully before ordering a new drug. ( 58 ) ( presc by can ) Small proportion of doctors prescribed new drugs even for drugs that were known as supplying significant betterment over bing intervention. ( 7,59 ) ( 19, 19 — -8 ) Costss of wellness attention are escalated by increased disbursement and usage of prescription medicines. There was no adequate grounds that physicians ordering behaviors affected by consciousness of drug cost ( 60 ) ( 20 ) . It may be that physician ordering behavior isA insensitive to be information. other factors such as drugA efficaciousness, , patient conformity, side effects and peer recommendationsA may be more of import. ( 61 ) ( 20 — -5 ) Particul arly for chronic attention medicationsA that have proven to be effectual for an single patient, A cost may be a minor factor. However, several studiesA have shownA that instruction of doctors about drug monetary values can alter prescribingA behavior and cut down cost by bettering selectionA of cost-efficient drug intervention. ( 62,63,64 ) ( 33-18,19,20 ) In qualitative surveies drug monetary value was a perennial subject and was mentioned as the chief ground for taking first line intervention. Price was besides mentioned as the ground for drug switch. ( 2 ) ( factors Allan ) It has been noted that when doctors were cognizant that patients would hold to pay out of their ain pockets for prescriptions, or they learned from patients ‘ ailments to them, they modified their prescribing behaviour consequently. ( 58 ) ( pres by can ) At primary attention degree, every bit high as two tierces of all prescriptions were repeated. One possible ground may be the impact of infirmary prescribing in volume was most obvious with repetition prescriptions for patients with chronic upsets. ( 9 ) ( 32 ) Second possible ground is that big proportion of repetition prescription issued during indirect contact. ( 24 ) ( 17 ) In UK survey, it has been found that 23 % of the patients had been having repetition prescriptions for more than a twelvemonth without seeing their household doctors. ( 65 ) ( 17 — -2 ) Practices with high figure of patients on repetition prescriptions were found to hold an increased hazard of polypharmacy. It has been noticed that patterns utilizing a broad scope of different drugs had a high prevalence of polypharmacy. ( 66 ) ( 18 — -31 ) Doctors ‘ beginnings of information about pharmaceutical agents are likely to be a major factor in ordering behaviour. The drug representatives visited doctors on frequent bases utilizing a broad assortment of promotional techniques including drug samples, gifts, and educational stuffs. Accepting drug samples was associated with penchant and prescription of new drug ( 25,67 ) ( 29, 29-40 ) In one survey, it has been found that 85 % of medical pupils believe it is improper for politicians to accept a gift, whereas 46 % found it improper for themselves to accept gift of similar value from a pharmaceutical company. ( 68 ) ( 29 — -9 ) All educational stuffs sponsored by pharmaceutical industries including support for travel or lodging to go to educational symposia, industry-paid Meals, pharmaceutical representative talkers, CME sponsorship and honoraria, research support influenced prescribing. ( 25 ) ( 29 ) The determination that advertising on clinical package had small consequence on ordering behavior was similar to other surveies consequences when analyzing the relationship between ordering and advertising in diary. One survey found no relation between the advertisement and for a drug and the sum and prescribing by doctors. ( 69 ) ( 5 — -11 ) Patients It is sensible that patterns with high proportion of aged patient had high rates of drug use. The observation that some of patterns had sicker patients than others ; this observation may be due to that sicker patients chose specific patterns or physician ordering behavior may hold made their patients sicker. ( 4 ) ( 1 ) It is non clear why sicker patients chose peculiar patterns. One survey has found that patterns with high proportion of aged patients were associated with greater likeliness of prescribing of new drugs, but lower new drug use. It has been suggested that doctors faced patients with coexisting disease. ( 70, 71 ) ( 19-53,54 ) The determination that patients in the distant parts had low prevalence of drug prescribing may hold been because of limited entree to medical services. ( 72 ) ( Quesinable presc ) Females were prescribed more medicines than males. When gender-specific medicines are excluded the differences are less marked. ( 73 ) ( 9-16 ) When female-specific cura tive groupings and interventions are removed, differences still exist between male and female prescribing.DecisionsDoctors ordering behavior appears to be influenced by multiple factors. Majority of surveies in this reappraisal retrieve their informations from wellness database. However, these comprehensive wellness databases have no information on the indicants for drug intervention or ascertainment of comorbidity that may hold affect ordering behaviour. Therefore, properties of the pattern population demand to be considered as possible prejudices. Data is missing on combination of each factor to patient outcomes, this spread in the literature needs to be addressed. Therefore, it is hard to mensurate the rightness of doctors ordering. Physicians ordering behaviour can be improved by execution of easy progressing alterations. Finally, ordering is a clinical determination ; surveies ; of clinical determination devising are about people, behaviour and contexts. They need both quantita tive and qualitative attacks. Davidson et al. , 1995 Canada 336 general patterns Gill et al. , 1997 United kingdom 310 general practicians Denig et al.,1998 Nederlands 181 general practicians Steffenson et al. , 1999 Danmark 95 general practicians Handerson et al. , 2008 Astralia 1336 general practicians Bjerrum et ak. , 2000 Danmark 173 general practicians Harris et al. , 1996 United kingdom 115 general patterns Chon et al. , 2009 Taiwan 11338 prescriptions Mortin et al. , 2002 Newzeland 31 general patterns McGavock et al. , 1988 United kingdom 23 general patterns Fernandez et al. , 2008 Spain 5474274 prescription McCarthy et Al 1992 United kingdom 362 general practioners Guo et al. , 2003 USA 7.3 million prescriptions Bjerrum et al. , 2002 Danmark Bjerrum et al. , 2001 Danmark 173 general practioners Rberts et al. , 1993 United kingdom 90 general patterns Straand et al. , 1999 Norway 1677 prescriptions Bjerrum et al. , 1999 Danmark 173 general patterns Tamblyn et ak. , 2003 Canada 1661 general practicians Omstein etal. , 1999 USA 22883 prescriptions Grimmsmann et al. , 2009 Germany 730 general patterns Buck et al. , 2009 USA 61251 patients Kuijpers et al. , 2008 Nederlands 150 patients Martens et al. , 2007 Nederlands 53 general practicians Straand et al. , 2006 Norway 600 general practicians